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Bashir Aliyu
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Tinubu inaugurates Presidential Campaign Council
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Seven Out of Every Ten Naira: What Nigeria’s Out-of-Pocket Health Data Says About “Free” Maternal Care
Out-of-pocket payments made up close to 71 percent of Nigeria's total health spending in 2023, and a government-commissioned review in Kaduna has already confirmed that beneficiaries pay for care under a policy explicitly branded "free." The numbers, not anecdote, are the story
By Bashir Aliyu
Out-of-pocket spending accounted for 70.94 percent of Nigeria's total health expenditure in 2023, according to figures compiled by the Commonwealth Fund from the WHO's Global Health Expenditure Database, one of the highest shares recorded anywhere in the world and well above the 35.5 percent average for lower-middle-income countries as a group. A separate national review of healthcare financing, drawing on health-facility surveys conducted between 2010 and 2023, found that 85 percent of Nigerians who use government health facilities pay out of pocket for the care they receive there, and that 90.73 percent of respondents cited inadequate staffing and 88.47 percent cited a lack of essential medicines as major obstacles to care. Only around 5 percent of the population carries any form of health insurance or prepayment cover, according to the WHO's Africa Health Observatory Platform profile of Nigeria's health financing system, which means the overwhelming majority of households settle medical bills directly, at the point of need, with no pooled risk protection behind them.
The scale of the resulting financial exposure is measurable, not speculative. A national analysis using the 2018/2019 Nigeria Living Standards Survey, covering 22,110 households, found that between 34.9 and 44.2 percent of Nigerian households experienced catastrophic health expenditure, defined as health spending exceeding 15 percent of non-food consumption. An earlier national study using the 2009/2010 Harmonized Nigeria Living Standard Survey put the figure at 16.4 percent of households at a stricter 10 percent-of-total-consumption threshold, and calculated that out-of-pocket health payments alone were pushing roughly 1.3 million Nigerians below the poverty line each year. A community-based study specific to Lagos, surveying 2,492 households across four local government areas between December 2022 and March 2023, found that 15 percent of Lagos households had experienced catastrophic health expenditure, with health insurance enrolment among the surveyed households at just 1 percent. Different surveys use different thresholds and years, which is why the range is wide, but every version of the calculation lands in double digits, and none of them show the burden falling evenly.
Kaduna offers the clearest documented example of the gap between a "free" policy and what actually happens at the point of care, because the state itself has now put the evidence on record. Its Free Maternal and Child Healthcare (FMCH) policy dates to 2006 and covers pregnant women and children under five. In July 2026, the Kaduna State Primary Health Care Board presented a formal review of the policy to stakeholders, including the Kaduna Maternal Health Advocacy Movement (KADMAM). The review, delivered by the Board's Director of Community Health Services, Hajiya Nafisa Musa, listed inadequate financing, a lack of life-saving medicines, drug procurement bottlenecks, outdated policy provisions and weak management structures among its findings, and stated directly that beneficiaries still pay for some services despite the free-care policy. That is a state government's own review, not an outside allegation: the policy exists, but its own custodians have documented that it is not functioning as advertised.
The campaign brief informing this reporting series describes a comparable pattern across the other four states, though these specific accounts come from the campaign's own field engagement and have not been independently verified case by case. In Kano, the brief describes families being asked to buy medicines and supplies before a woman in labour can be attended to. In Lagos, it describes women seeking family planning services being turned away when commodities are out of stock, left to choose between a private pharmacy and going without. In Jigawa and Gombe, it describes rural women travelling long distances only to find that what they need is unavailable free of charge, or unavailable altogether. Read against the Kaduna review and the national catastrophic-expenditure data, these accounts describe a documented national pattern playing out at facility level, rather than an isolated failure in one state.
The connection to funding delay, examined in more detail in the companion article in this series, is direct and measurable. In Jigawa, the Jigawa Maternal Accountability Forum's own review found that a ₦500 million family planning allocation under the Jigawa State Primary Healthcare Development Agency recorded zero expenditure through the first two quarters of 2026. In Kano, civil society group KanSLAM confirmed in April 2026 that a ₦2 billion maternal and child healthcare allocation had not been released. When a facility cannot stock oxytocin, gloves or a blood pressure cuff because the budget line meant to pay for it has not been disbursed, that shortfall is not absorbed by government. National data shows it is absorbed by the patient.
At the national policy level, the resourcing gap behind all of this is also on the public record. Nigeria's federal health budget for 2025 stood at roughly ₦2.48 trillion, or 5.18 percent of the total national budget of ₦49.74 trillion, according to the Centre for Journalism Innovation and Development's analysis of the appropriation. That is well under a third of the 15 percent of national budget that African Union member states, Nigeria included, committed to allocating to health under the 2001 Abuja Declaration. States that clear the 15 percent benchmark, such as Kano and Kaduna, still show large gaps between what is allocated and what reaches facilities, according to the budget performance reviews cited in this series, which indicates the shortfall is not only about the size of the allocation but about execution once a budget is signed into law.
None of the data reviewed for this article supports treating frontline health workers as the source of the problem. The Kaduna review attributes the gap to financing and supply-chain failures at the system level, not to individual staff decisions, and workers documented in accountability reports across these states are frequently the ones absorbing shortages by directing patients to nearby pharmacies rather than turning them away outright. The measurable gap, consistently, sits between a budget line and a policy document that say "free" and a disbursement and supply chain that has not been resourced to make that promise real. Kaduna's FMCH policy, Lagos's family planning programme and Kano's ₦2 billion maternal health allocation already exist on paper; what the data shows missing is the funding reaching the facility before the patient does.
SOURCES AND REFERENCES
Commonwealth Fund. "Nigeria" (international health policy profile), citing WHO/Global Health Expenditure Database, 2023 figures. Updated 2026. https://www.commonwealthfund.org/international-health-policy-center/countries/nigeria
National Center for Biotechnology Information (PMC). "Critical review of healthcare financing and a survey of system quality perception among healthcare users in Nigeria (2010–2023)." https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12118842/
WHO Africa Health Observatory Platform (AHOP). "Health financing – Nigeria Health System and Services Profile." https://ahop.aho.afro.who.int/download/health-financing-nigeria-health-system-and-services-profile/
PubMed / CNGBdb. "Catastrophic health expenditure and its determinants among Nigerian households," using the 2018/2019 Nigeria Living Standards Survey (22,110 households). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35157187/
PMC. "Out-of-Pocket Payments, Catastrophic Health Expenditure and Poverty Among Households in Nigeria," using the 2009/2010 Harmonized Nigeria Living Standard Survey. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6186489/
PLOS ONE / PMC. "Factors associated with Catastrophic Healthcare Expenditure in communities of Lagos Nigeria: A Megacity experience," 2,492-household survey, December 2022 to March 2023. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0316814
Voice of Nigeria. "KADMAM Seeks Implementation of Free Maternal Healthcare Policy." July 16, 2026. https://von.gov.ng/kadmam-seeks-implementation-of-free-maternal-healthcare-policy/
Newspanorama. "KADMAM seeks update on status of Kaduna Free Maternal, Child Healthcare Policy, advocates review." July 17, 2026. https://www.newspanorama.com.ng/2026/07/kadmam-seeks-update-on-status-of-kaduna.html
The Guardian Nigeria (Features/Health). "JiMAF Faults Slow Health Budget Implementation In Jigawa." August 7, 2026. https://guardian.ng/features/health/jimaf-faults-slow-health-budget-implementation-in-jigawa/
Nigeria Info FM (Lagos). "Delayed Release of Health Funds Puts Women, Children at Risk in Kano, KanSLAM." April 11, 2026. https://www.nigeriainfo.fm/news/homepagelagos/delayed-release-of-health-funds-puts-women-children-at-risk-in-kano-kanslam/
Centre for Journalism Innovation and Development (CJID). "Out-of-Pocket and Out of Reach: Why Nigeria's Health Insurance Coverage is not working," citing the 2025 federal appropriation. June 27, 2025. https://thecjid.org/out-of-pocket-and-out-of-reach-why-nigerias-health-insurance-coverage-is-not-working/
When the Door to Care Is Open But the Service Is Not
By Bashir Aliyu
Nigeria has roughly a third of the doctors it needs and some of the widest urban-rural health worker gaps in Africa. In that shortage, personal judgment (about who deserves childbirth spacing information and who does not) has room to operate largely unchecked
Nigeria's doctor shortage is not a matter of interpretation; it is a matter of arithmetic that keeps producing the same uncomfortable answer. The country's doctor-to-patient ratio stands at roughly 2.9 per 10,000 people, or about one doctor for every 3,474 Nigerians, according to a 2026 analysis published by Nigeria Health Watch, far below the World Health Organization's recommended benchmark of 17 per 10,000. Public health expert Professor Akin Osibogun told the inaugural Biennial Presidential Colloquium of the Academy of Medical Sciences in Lagos in August that the country needs somewhere in the region of 360,000 doctors to meet its disease burden; it currently has a fraction of that, with just under 4,000 to 4,400 new doctors graduating each year against a national need that dwarfs that output. More than 70 percent of the doctors Nigeria does have are concentrated in Lagos, the Federal Capital Territory, Rivers, Kano and Kaduna, meaning rural communities in every one of the five states in this reporting series are working with far less than the national average implies.
This is the backdrop against which the campaign brief informing this series describes a recurring scene: a woman or couple walks into a health centre asking about childbirth spacing, and instead of receiving information, they are turned away, asked to come back another day, or told to bring a husband before anyone will discuss their options. In Kaduna, the brief describes an adolescent boy accompanying a female friend to a health centre to learn about childbirth spacing together, only to be refused because the provider would not discuss the available methods with them. In Jigawa, an adolescent mother hoping to space her next pregnancy is turned away specifically because of her age.
Those accounts, drawn from the campaign's own community engagement, are difficult to independently verify as individual incidents; the campaign brief itself frames them as illustrative "asks" for content creators to go and document, rather than as already-confirmed case files. But the pattern they describe is well established in the published research literature, and it predates this campaign by years. A study of contraceptive service providers across six Nigerian cities (Abuja, Benin City, Ibadan, Ilorin, Kaduna and Zaria) found that provider-imposed eligibility restrictions were pervasive, with minimum age the single most common barrier imposed across both method type and provider category. A separate study conducted in Kaduna's secondary health facilities found that fewer than 4.5 percent of women using modern contraceptives there were adolescents, despite adolescents making up a much larger share of the reproductive-age population, a gap researchers attributed partly to what they termed "age-long bias," including judgmental health workers and restrictive informal practice, alongside genuine gaps in adolescent-friendly service design. A broader scoping review of Sub-Saharan Africa found that in West African countries including Nigeria, negative provider attitudes and restrictive service hours were specifically identified as key barriers, distinct from the sociocultural stigma and parental disapproval that operate outside the clinic walls.
It would be a mistake, though, to read all of this as simply a story about individual health workers making bad choices. The research is explicit that provider bias and systemic understaffing are entangled, not separate problems. Nigeria has roughly 20 nurses, midwives and doctors for every 10,000 people, according to IntraHealth International, below the WHO's minimum threshold for adequate coverage, and a number that gets worse, not better, once you leave Lagos and the other southern urban centres. A 2023 labour market assessment by the Federal Ministry of Health and Social Welfare found that around 300,000 to 350,000 people were employed across core health worker cadres nationally in 2022 (nurses, midwives, doctors and laboratory staff among them), a workforce spread thin across a population of more than 200 million. When one overworked health worker is the only person on duty at a primary health centre, handling deliveries, antenatal visits, immunisation and childbirth spacing counselling in the same shift, the capacity to give every client unhurried, non-judgmental attention shrinks, and shortcuts (including turning away clients whose needs feel complicated or contentious, such as an unmarried adolescent asking about contraception), become more likely, not because providers are unusually biased people, but because an overstretched system creates conditions where bias goes unchecked and unsupervised.
The federal government has, on paper, recognised the workforce side of this problem. The National Health Workforce Migration Policy, approved in August 2024, was designed to manage the outflow of Nigerian-trained health workers to the United Kingdom, United States, Canada and elsewhere, a migration wave large enough that Nigeria has become one of Africa's leading exporters of healthcare workers even as it undersupplies its own facilities. What the policy does less to address directly is the training and supervision gap that shapes how the health workers who do remain actually treat clients seeking childbirth spacing services, particularly young or unmarried clients, whom research consistently identifies as the group most likely to encounter a provider's personal judgment standing between them and the method they came for.
The fix suggested by the underlying research is less about blame and more about design: standardised, mandatory training on unbiased, client-centred service provision, paired with adequate staffing so that training has room to translate into practice, and supervision structures that catch and correct provider bias where it does occur rather than leaving it invisible inside a single overworked shift. Kano, Kaduna, Lagos, Jigawa and Gombe governments have all, at various points, pledged commitments to recruit, train and retain more health workers; the accountability question this campaign is asking is whether those pledges show up in the same way KanSLAM and JiMAF have tracked budget releases elsewhere in this reporting series, publicly, on a schedule, and with numbers attached.
It is worth being precise about what "provider bias" means in this context, because the term gets used loosely. Researchers who study it distinguish between a provider declining to offer a method for a genuine medical reason (a documented contraindication, for instance) and a provider withholding information or service based on assumptions about a client's marital status, age, or perceived moral standing. The Kaduna adolescent study found that training experience among providers had only a limited effect on reducing these informal, non-medical restrictions, which suggests that one round of workshops is unlikely to solve a problem this embedded. It points instead toward something closer to a culture and supervision issue: providers need to know not just what the guidelines say, but that someone is checking whether they follow them, and that a client turned away without a medical reason has somewhere to report it. None of the five states in this campaign currently appear, from public reporting, to have a visible complaints mechanism specifically for this, a gap a future policy-focused article in this series, once the campaign clarifies its intended scope, could usefully examine.
## SOURCES AND REFERENCES
1. Nigeria Health Watch / AllAfrica. "Health Workers' Impossible Workloads Are Deepening Nigeria's Doctor-Patient Crisis." Published/updated 2026. https://nigeriahealthwatch.com/articles/thought-leadership/health-workers-impossible-workloads-are-deepening-nigerias-doctor-patient-crisis/
2. tori.ng. "Nigeria Needs 360,000 Doctors to Fix Health Workforce Crisis", reporting remarks by Prof. Akin Osibogun at the Biennial Presidential Colloquium of the Academy of Medical Sciences, Lagos. August 13, 2026. https://www.tori.ng/amp/324680/nigeria-needs-360000-doctors-to-fix-health-workfor.html
3. Gates Open Research. "Access to contraceptives for adolescents in northern Nigeria – a cross-sectional study from three secondary health facilities in Kaduna metropolis, Kaduna." https://gatesopenresearch.org/articles/3-1476
4. PMC / BMC Health Services Research. "Contraceptive service provider imposed restrictions to contraceptive access in urban Nigeria." https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5389090/
5. Taylor & Francis Online (Global Health Action). "Barriers to accessing contraceptive services for adolescents in Sub-Saharan Africa: a scoping review." 2026. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/16549716.2026.2699036
6. IntraHealth International. "Nigeria" country profile, health workforce density. https://www.intrahealth.org/countries/nigeria
7. Guardian Nigeria (Opinion). "Managing exodus, shortage of skilled health workers in Nigeria," citing Federal Ministry of Health and Social Welfare 2023 labour market assessment. August 29, 2024. https://guardian.ng/opinion/managing-exodus-shortage-of-skilled-health-workers-in-nigeria/


